Peripheral artery occlusive disease
Peripheral artery occlusive disease Classification & external resources
ICD-10
| I73.9
|
ICD-9
| 443.9
|
DiseasesDB
| 31142
|
eMedicine
| med/391 emerg/862
|
MeSH
| D016491
|
In medicine, peripheral artery occlusive disease (PAOD, also known as peripheral vascular disease (PVD) and peripheral artery disease (PAD) is a collator for all diseases caused by the obstruction of large peripheral arteries, which can result from atherosclerosis, inflammatory processes leading to stenosis, an embolism or thrombus formation. It causes either acute or chronic ischemia.
Additional recommended knowledge
Classification
Peripheral artery occlusive disease is commonly divided in the Fontaine stages:[1]
Symptoms
- Claudication - pain, weakness, or cramping in muscles due to decreased blood flow
- Sores, wounds, or ulcers that heal slowly or not at all
- Noticeable change in color (blueness or paleness) or temperature (coolness) when compared to the other limb
- Diminished hair and nail growth on affected limb and digits.
Causes
- Smoking - tobacco use in any form is the single most important modifiable cause of PAD internationally. Smokers have up to a tenfold increase in relative risk for PAOD in a dose-related effect. Exposure to second-hand smoke from environmental exposure has also been shown to promote changes in blood vessel lining (endothelium) which is a precursor to atherosclerosis.
- Diabetes Mellitus - increased risk of PAOD 2-4X by causing endothelial and smooth muscle cell dysfunction in peripheral arteries. Diabetics account for up to 70% of nontraumatic amputations performed, and a known diabetic who smokes runs an approximately 30% risk of amputation within 5 years.
- Dyslipidemia - elevation of total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, and triglyceride levels each have been correlated with accelerated PAOD. Correction of dyslipidemia by diet and/or medication is associated with a major improvement in short-term rates of heart attack and stroke. This benefit is gained even though current evidence does not demonstrate a major reversal of peripheral and/or coronary atherosclerosis.
- Hypertension - elevated blood pressure is correlated with an increase in the risk of developing PAD, as well as in associated coronary and cerebrovascular events (heart attack and stroke).
- Other risk factors which are being studied include levels of various inflammatory mediators such as C-reactive protein, homocysteine, and fibrinogen.
- Risk of PAOD also increases if the patient is: over the age of 50, African American, male, obese, or has a personal history of vascular disease, heart attack, or stroke.
Diagnosis
Upon suspicion of PAOD, the first-line test is the ankle brachial pressure index (ABPI/ABI) which is a measure of the fall in blood pressure in the arteries supplying the legs. A reduced ABPI (less than 0.9) is consistent with PAOD. Values of ABPI below 0.8 indicate moderate disease and below 0.5 severe disease.It is possible for conditions which stiffen the vessel walls to produce incorrect readings and high values(>1.3) would also merit investigation.
If ABI's are abnormal the next step is generally a lower limb doppler ultrasound examination to look at site and extent of atherosclerosis at the femoral artery. Other imaging can be performed by angiography, where a catheter is inserted into the femoral artery and selectively guided to the artery in question and then used to inject radiodense contrast agent whilst an X-ray is taken. Any stenosis of the arteries can be identified and treated at the same time by balloon angioplasty if the stenosis is over a short segment (<3cm). However if the artery is occluded or there is diffuse disease present, then arterial bypass surgery may be required.
Modern multislice computerized tomography (CT) scanners provide direct imaging of the arterial system as an alternative to angiography. CT provides complete evaluation of the aorta and lower limb arteries without the need for an angiogram's arterial injection of contrast agent.
Prevalence and Incidence
The prevalence of peripheral arterial disease (PAD) in people aged over 55 years is 10%–25% and increases with age; 70%–80% of affected individuals are asymptomatic; only a minority ever require revascularisation or amputation. [2]
In USA peripheral arterial disease affects 12-20 percent of Americans age 65 and older. Despite its prevalence and cardiovascular risk implications, only 25 percent of PAD patients are undergoing treatment. [3]
The incidence of symptomatic PAD increases with age, from about 0.3% per year for men aged 40–55 years to about 1% per year for men aged over 75 years. The prevalence of PAD varies considerably depending on how PAD is defined, and the age of the population being studied. [2] Diagnosis is critical, as people with PAD have a four to five times higher risk of heart attack or stroke.
In Western Australia, the prevalence of symptomatic disease at around 60 years of age is about 5%. [4]
A study from the NHANES 1999–2000 data found that PAD affects approximately 5 million adults. [3]
The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial and U.K. Prospective Diabetes Study trials in people with type 1 and type 2 diabetes, respectively, demonstrated that glycemic control is more strongly associated with microvascular disease than macrovascular disease. It may be that pathologic changes occurring in small vessels are more sensitive to chronically elevated glucose levels than is atherosclerosis occurring in larger arteries. [5]
Therapy
Dependent on the severity of the disease, the following steps can be taken:
- Conservative measures include Smoking cessation (cigarettes promote PAOD and are a risk factor for cardiovascular disease). Regular exercise for those with claudication helps open up alternative small vessels (collateral flow) and the limitation in walking often improves. Medication with aspirin, clopidogrel and statins, which reduce clot formation and cholesterol levels, respectively can help with disease progression and address the other cardiovascular risks that the patient is likely to have.
- Angioplasty (PTA or percutaneous transluminal angioplasty) can be done on solitary lesions in large arteries, such as the femoral artery.
- Plaque excision, in which the plaque is scraped off of the inside of the vessel wall.
- Occasionally, bypass grafting is needed to circumvent a seriously stenosed area of the arterial vasculature. Generally, the saphenous vein is used, although artificial (Gore-Tex) material is often used for large tracts when the veins are of lesser quality.
- Rarely, sympathectomy is used - removing the nerves that make arteries contract, effectively leading to vasodilatation.
- When gangrene of toes has set in, amputation is often a last resort to stop infected dying tissues from causing septicemia.
Arterial thrombosis or embolism has a dismal prognosis, but is occasionally treated successfully with thrombolysis.
Associations
Many PAOD patients also have angina pectoris or have had myocardial infarction. There is also an increased risk for stroke.
Guidelines
Several different guideline standards have been developed, including:
References
- ^ Fontaine R, Kim M, Kieny R (1954). "Die chirugische Behandlung der peripheren Durchblutungsstörungen.
(Surgical treatment of peripheral circulation disorders)" (in German). Helvetica Chirurgica Acta, Basel 21 (5/6): 499–533.
- ^ a b Peripheral arterial disease prevention and prevalence. Peripheral Arterial Disease (Nov 1 2007). Retrieved on 2007-12-03.
- ^ a b A. Richey Sharrett, MD, DRPH (Sep 21 2007). Peripheral arterial disease prevalence. Peripheral Arterial Disease. Retrieved on 2007-12-03.
- ^ Hiatt W, Hoag S, Hamman R. (Sep 21 1995). Effect of diagnostic criteria on the prevalence of peripheral arterial disease. Effect of diagnostic criteria on the prevalence of peripheral arterial disease. Retrieved on 2007-12-03.
- ^ Elizabeth Selvin, PHD, MPH, Keattiyoat Wattanakit, MD, MPH, Michael W. Steffes, MD, PHD, Josef Coresh, MD, PHD and A. Richey Sharrett, MD, DRPH (Oct 20 2005). HbA1c and Peripheral Arterial Disease in Diabetes. The Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities study. Retrieved on 2007-12-03.
- ^ Norgren L, Hiatt WR, Dormandy JA, Nehler MR, Harris KA, Fowkes FG; TASC II Working Group, Bell K, Caporusso J, Durand-Zaleski I, Komori K, Lammer J, Liapis C, Novo S, Razavi M, Robbs J, Schaper N, Shigematsu H, Sapoval M, White C, White J; TASC II Working Group. (2007). "Inter-Society Consensus for the Management of Peripheral Arterial Disease (TASC II)". Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg. 33 (Suppl 1): S1-75. PMID 17140820.
- ^ Norgren L, Hiatt WR, Dormandy JA, Nehler MR, Harris KA, Fowkes FG; TASC II Working Group, Bell K, Caporusso J, Durand-Zaleski I, Komori K, Lammer J, Liapis C, Novo S, Razavi M, Robbs J, Schaper N, Shigematsu H, Sapoval M, White C, White J; TASC II Working Group. (2007). "Inter-Society Consensus for the Management of Peripheral Arterial Disease (TASC II)". J Vasc Surg. 45 (Suppl S): S5-67. PMID 17223489.
- ^ Norgren L, Hiatt WR, Dormandy JA, Nehler MR, Harris KA, Fowkes FG; TASC II Working Group, Bell K, Caporusso J, Durand-Zaleski I, Komori K, Lammer J, Liapis C, Novo S, Razavi M, Robbs J, Schaper N, Shigematsu H, Sapoval M, White C, White J; TASC II Working Group. (2007). "Inter-Society Consensus for the Management of Peripheral Arterial Disease". Int Angiol. 26 (2): 81-157. PMID 17489079.
- ^ Hirsch AT, Haskal ZJ, Hertzer NR, et al (2006). "ACC/AHA 2005 guidelines for the management of patients with peripheral arterial disease (lower extremity, renal, mesenteric, and abdominal aortic): executive summary a collaborative report from the American Association for Vascular Surgery/Society for Vascular Surgery, Society for Cardiovascular Angiography and Interventions, Society for Vascular Medicine and Biology, Society of Interventional Radiology, and the ACC/AHA Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Writing Committee to Develop Guidelines for the Management of Patients With Peripheral Arterial Disease) endorsed by the American Association of Cardiovascular and Pulmonary Rehabilitation; National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute; Society for Vascular Nursing; TransAtlantic Inter-Society Consensus; and Vascular Disease Foundation". J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 47 (6): 1239-312. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2005.10.009. PMID 16545667.
Circulatory system pathology (I, 390-459) |
---|
Hypertension | Hypertensive heart disease - Hypertensive nephropathy - Secondary hypertension (Renovascular hypertension) |
---|
Ischaemic heart disease | Angina pectoris (Prinzmetal's angina) - Myocardial infarction - Dressler's syndrome |
---|
Pulmonary circulation | Pulmonary embolism - Cor pulmonale |
---|
Pericardium | Pericarditis - Pericardial effusion - Cardiac tamponade |
---|
Endocardium/heart valves | Endocarditis - mitral valves (regurgitation, prolapse, stenosis) - aortic valves (stenosis, insufficiency) - pulmonary valves (stenosis, insufficiency) - tricuspid valves (stenosis, insufficiency) |
---|
Myocardium | Myocarditis - Cardiomyopathy (Dilated cardiomyopathy, Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, Loeffler endocarditis, Restrictive cardiomyopathy) - Arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia |
---|
Electrical conduction system of the heart | Heart block: AV block (First degree, Second degree, Third degree) - Bundle branch block (Left, Right) - Bifascicular block - Trifascicular block Pre-excitation syndrome (Wolff-Parkinson-White, Lown-Ganong-Levine) - Long QT syndrome - Adams-Stokes syndrome - Cardiac arrest - Sudden cardiac death Arrhythmia: Paroxysmal tachycardia (Supraventricular, AV nodal reentrant, Ventricular) - Atrial flutter - Atrial fibrillation - Ventricular fibrillation - Premature contraction (Atrial, Ventricular) - Ectopic pacemaker - Sick sinus syndrome |
---|
Other heart conditions | Heart failure - Cardiovascular disease - Cardiomegaly - Ventricular hypertrophy (Left, Right) |
---|
Cerebrovascular diseases | Intracranial hemorrhage/cerebral hemorrhage: Extra-axial hemorrhage (Epidural hemorrhage, Subdural hemorrhage, Subarachnoid hemorrhage) Intra-axial hematoma (Intraventricular hemorrhages, Intraparenchymal hemorrhage) - Anterior spinal artery syndrome - Binswanger's disease - Moyamoya disease |
---|
Arteries, arterioles and capillaries | Atherosclerosis (Renal artery stenosis) - Aortic dissection/Aortic aneurysm (Abdominal aortic aneurysm) - Aneurysm - Raynaud's phenomenon/Raynaud's disease - Buerger's disease - Vasculitis/Arteritis (Aortitis) - Intermittent claudication - Arteriovenous fistula - Hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia - Spider angioma |
---|
Veins, lymphatic vessels and lymph nodes | Thrombosis/Phlebitis/Thrombophlebitis (Deep vein thrombosis, May-Thurner syndrome, Portal vein thrombosis, Venous thrombosis, Budd-Chiari syndrome, Renal vein thrombosis, Paget-Schroetter disease) - Varicose veins / Portacaval anastomosis (Hemorrhoid, Esophageal varices, Varicocele, Gastric varices, Caput medusae) - Superior vena cava syndrome - Lymph (Lymphadenitis, Lymphedema, Lymphangitis) |
---|
Other | Hypotension (Orthostatic hypotension) |
---|
See also congenital (Q20-Q28, 745-747) |
|